Life and Art of Anni Albers, Modernist Weaver

Born Anneliese Fleischmann in 1899 to an affluent German family, Anni Albers was expected to live the tranquil life of a housewife. Yet Anni was determined to become an artist. Known for her masterful textile work and influential ideas about design, Albers went on to establish weaving as a new medium for modern art. Fast Facts: Anni Albers Full Name: Anneliese Fleischmann AlbersBorn: June 12, 1899 in Berlin, German EmpireEducation: BauhausDied: May 9, 1994 in Orange, Connecticut, U.S.Spouses Name: Josef Albers (m. 1925)Key Accomplishments: First textile designer to receive a solo show at the Museum of Modern Art. Early Life As a teenager, Anni knocked on famed Expressionist painter Oskar Kokoschka’s door and asked him if she could apprentice under him. In response to the young woman and the paintings she had brought with her, Kokoschka scoffed, barely giving  her the time of day. Undiscouraged, Anni turned to the newly founded Bauhaus in Weimar, Germany where, under the guidance of architect Walter Gropius, a new philosophy of design was being developed. Bauhaus Years Anni met her future husband Josef Albers, eleven years her senior, in 1922. According to Anni, she asked to be placed as a student in the Bauhaus glassmaking studio because she had seen a handsome-looking man at work there, and she hoped he could be her teacher. Though she was denied placement in the glass workshop, she nevertheless found a lifelong partner in the man: Josef Albers. They married in 1925 and would remain married  for more than 50 years, until Josef’s death in 1976. Though the Bauhaus preached inclusivity, women were  allowed entrance only into the bookmaking studio and the weaving workshop. And as the bookmaking workshop shuttered soon after the Bauhaus’ founding, women found that their only option was to enter as weavers. (Ironically, it was the commercial sale of the fabrics they produced that kept the Bauhaus financially secure.) Albers excelled in the program and eventually became head of the workshop.  Ã‚   At the Bauhaus, Albers exhibited a remarkable ability to innovate with a variety of materials. For her diploma project, she was charged with creating fabric to line the walls of an auditorium. Using cellophane and cotton, she made a material which could reflect light and absorb sound, and could not be stained. Black Mountain College In 1933, the Nazi Party came to power in Germany. The Bauhaus project came to an end under pressure from the regime. As Anni had Jewish roots (though her family had converted to Christianity in her youth), she and Josef believed it best to flee Germany. Rather serendipitously, Josef was offered a job at Black Mountain College in North Carolina, by way of a recommendation of Philip Johnson, a trustee at the Museum of Modern Art. Black Mountain College was an experiment in education, inspired by the writings and teachings of John Dewey. Dewey’s philosophy preached of an artistic education as the means to educating democratic citizens capable of exercising individual judgment. Josef’s pedagogical skill was soon an invaluable part of the curriculum of Black Mountain, where he taught the importance of understanding material, color, and line through the pure act of seeing. Anni Albers was an assistant instructor at Black Mountain, where she taught students in the weaving studio. Her own philosophy was derived from the importance of understanding of material. We touch things to put ourselves in close contact with reality, to remind ourselves we are in the world, not above it, she wrote.   Annie Albers, Knot (1947). Courtesy of David Zwirner As her husband spoke little English upon arrival to the United States (and in fact would never speak it fluently despite forty years in America), Anni acted as his translator, having learned English from the Irish governess with whom she grew up in Berlin. Her command of the language was remarkable, as is apparent when reading any of her extensive writings, either in numerous publications for the Black Mountain newsletter, or in her own published works. Peru, Mexico, and Yale From Black Mountain, Anni and Josef would drive to Mexico, sometimes with friends, where they would study the ancient culture through sculpture, architecture, and craft. Both had much to learn and began collecting figurines and examples of ancient cloths and ceramics. They would also bring home the memory of South America’s color and light, which both would incorporate into their practices. Josef would seek to capture the pure desert oranges and reds, while Anni would mimic the monolithic forms she discovered in the ruins of ancient civilizations, incorporating them into works like  Ancient Writing  (1936)  and  La Luz  (1958). In 1949, due to disagreements with the administration of Black Mountain, Josef and Anni Albers left Black Mountain College for New York City, and then went on to Connecticut, where Josef was offered a position at the Yale School of Art. In the same year, Albers was given the first solo show dedicated to a textile artist at the Museum of Modern Art.   Writings Anni Albers was a prolific writer, often publishing in crafts journals about weaving. She was also the author of the  Encyclopedia Brittanica’s entry on hand weaving, with which she begins her seminal text,  On Weaving, first published in 1965. (An updated, color version of this work was reissued by Princeton University Press in 2017.)  On Weaving  was only in part an instruction manual, but is more accurately described as an homage to a medium. In it, Albers extols the pleasures of the process of weaving, revels in the importance of its materiality, and explores its lengthy history. She dedicates the work to the ancient weavers of Peru, whom she calls her â€Å"teachers,† as she believed the medium reached its highest heights in that civilization. Anni Albers, Open Letter (1958). Courtesy David Zwirner Albers sold her loom by 1968 after producing her last weaving, appropriately titled  Epitaph. When accompanying her husband to a residency at a college in California, she refused to be the wife who sat idly by, so she found a means to be productive. She used the school’s art studios to produce silkscreens, which would soon dominate her practice and often mimicked the geometries she developed in her woven works. Death and Legacy Before Anni Albers’ death May 9, 1994, the German government paid Mrs. Albers reparations for the confiscation of her parents’ successful furniture business in the 1930s, which was shut down due to the family’s Jewish roots. Albers put the resulting sum into a foundation, which manages the Albers estate today. It includes the couple’s archive, as well as the papers relating to  a few of their students from Black Mountain, among them wire sculptor  Ruth Asawa. Sources Albers, A. (1965).  On Weaving.  Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press.Danilowitz, B.  and  Liesbrock, H. (eds.). (2007).  Anni and Josef Albers: Latin AmericanJourneys. Berlin: Hatje Cantz.Fox  Weber, N.  and  Ã‚  Tabatabai Asbaghi, P. (1999).  Anni Albers.  Venice: Guggenheim Museum.​Smith, T. (21014).  Bauhaus Weaving Theory: From Feminine Craft to Mode of DesignBauhaus. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.

Human Behavior, Ethnocentrism, And Cultural Relativism

Anthropology is a broad study of the products and precedents of human behavior. These products and precedents include the study of material objects, institutions and factors that contribute to social change and understanding of human behavior. In studying human behavior, ethnocentrism and cultural relativism will be examined as these concepts expose the authors (McDonnell 2016). Male domination will also be considered while examining these concepts as an important trait in the Afghan society. Ethnocentrism is an idea supported by a mixture of beliefs that one’s own culture is superior to any other culture. The ideas, foreign ways, and values of them are less human or less rational (McDonnell 2016). Cultural relativism, on the other hand, is the understanding of people and culture on their own terms. Understanding that all cultures have a qualitative difference from our own culture and that they have their own inner logic (McDonnell 2016). In the culture practice of Bacha Bazi (2001), whereby young boys dress up as women and dance for wealthy men that is against the law in Afghanistan. It is a form of sexual slavery and many boys are exploited and some are murdered. In the class video â€Å"Dancing Boys†, the journalist Najibullah and the producer Doran both were ethnocentric. How Najibullah goes to Afghanistan with a method agenda to film about this practice and expose it on a deeper level and the producer Doran putting other speakers in the video that give statements that areShow MoreRelatedCultural Relativsim vs. Ethnocentrism1190 Words   |  5 Pagesof the human spirit.† The quote means that because a person is not like you or your culture does not make them inferior. It makes them unique in their own way. 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Philosophical means articulation, argumentation, analysis, and synthesis of the idea, principle or concept. [1] Implication is a relationship between two propositions that holds when both propositions are true and fails when the first is true but the second is false. It is to develop a logical cohesion among argumentsRead MoreCulture and Ethnocentrism1439 Words   |  6 Pagesethnocentric, and if so is it a bad thing? To answer that, one must understand what ethnocentrism is. According to Macionis (2004), ethnocentrism is the practice of judging another culture by the standards of ones own culture. We are not born with culture; culture is a socially learned behavior, or set of values that a given groups holds as a norm and are considered to be true and right. It is these cultural norms that connect the individuals of the group, which make up a society. No societyRead MoreAnthropology, Ethnography, And Ethnology1568 Words   |  7 Pagesmanifold interpretations of stories no matter the culture.(Bohanan 1966) Ethnography and Ethnology give an understanding of ourselves as humans, their variance lies in the unique methods each use as well as the separate goals pursued. The Ethnographer collects information while developing connections with the cultures they are studying.Ethnography gathers its cultural information through fieldwork often spending many years on and off(Lenkeit 2011:6) A ethnographers goal is to observe every aspect ofRead More Ethnocentrism Essay1373 Words   |  6 Pagesethnocentric, and if so is it a bad thing? To answer that, one must understand what ethnocentrism is. According to Macionis (2004), ethnocentrism is â€Å"the practice of judging another culture by the standards of one’s own culture†. We are not born with culture; culture is a socially learned behavior, or set of values that a given groups holds as a norm and are considered to be true and right. It is these cultural norms that connect the individuals of the group, which make up a society. No society

Vague and Ambiguous Free Essays

One main task of critical thinking is to identify these linguistic pitfalls. Let us start with the first major pitfall – obscurity. â€Å"Obscurity† here refers to unclear meaning. We will write a custom essay sample on Vague and Ambiguous or any similar topic only for you Order Now A concept or a linguistic expression can be unclear for various reasons. One reason is that it might be  ambiguous, i. e. having more than one meaning. The other reason is that it might be  vague. A term is said to be vague if there are borderline cases where it is indeterminate as to whether it applies or not. Finally, a term might also have an unclear meaning in that its meaning is  incomplete. Let us look at these cases one by one.  § M08. 1 Ambiguity There are actually different kinds of ambiguity: Lexical ambiguity This is a single word or term having more than one meaning in the language. For example, the word â€Å"deep† can mean profoundity (â€Å"What you have said is very deep. â€Å"), or it can be used to describe physical depth (â€Å"This hole is very deep†). Similarly for words like â€Å"young† (inexperienced or young of age), â€Å"bank† (river bank or financial institution), etc. Referential ambiguity It is not clear which thing or group is being referred to. This often arises when the context does not make it clear what a pronoun or quantifier is referring to. â€Å"Ally hit Georgia and then she started bleeding. † Who is hurt? Ally or Georgia? â€Å"Everybody is coming to the party. † Certainly â€Å"everybody† does not refer to every human being in the whole world. But then which group of people are we talking about? Of course in normal situations the speaker usually has some specific group of people in mind. Many people like to make very general statements, such as â€Å"All politicians are corrupt†. Literally, this statement implies that there is no politician who is not corrupted. But of course we can think of many counterexamples to such a claim. So the person who makes the statement might say â€Å"I don’t really mean each and every politician. † But then who exactly are the people referred to? Syntactic ambiguity This means having more than one meaning because there is more than one way to interpret the grammatical structure. This can happen even when it is clear what the meanings of the individual words are. â€Å"We shall be discussing violence on TV. † – It might mean the discussion will be conducted during a television programme, or it might mean  violence on TV  is the topic to be discussed. When dealing with ambiguous language the thing to do is of course to clarify the meaning of the expression, for example by listing out all the different possible interpretations. This process of removing ambiguity is call â€Å"disambiguation†.  § M08. 2 Vagueness An term is  vague  if it has an imprecise boundary. This means that there are cases where it is indeterminate whether the term applies or not. For example, a small but closed room with no windows or doors and no light inside is certain dark. If we switch on a 100W lightbulbs inside it will become bright. But we turn on the dimmer for the light and dim the light slowly until it goes out, then the room will gradually change from a bright room to a dark one. But there is no precise point at which the room suddenly ceases to be bright. Similarly, there is no precise point at which the room suddenly becomes dark. The terms â€Å"dark† and â€Å"bright† do not have clear boundaries of applications in this situation, and we say that these terms are vague. The term â€Å"a tall person† is also vague in that there are certain cases where it is hard to say whether a person is tall or not, but this indecision is not due to lack of knowledge about that person’s height. You might know exactly how tall that person is, but still you don’t know whether he is tall or not. This is because the meaning of the term is not precise enough. Other examples of vague terms : â€Å"heavy†, â€Å"dark†, â€Å"mountain†, â€Å"clever†, â€Å"cheap†. Notice that  we should make a distinction between vagueness and ambiguity. A word can be vague even though it is not ambiguous, and an ambiguous term having more than one meaning would not be said to be vague if the different meanings it has are very precise. Vague terms can be useful in everyday life  because often we do not have to be too precise. How precise we should be depends of course on the context. A form of (bad) argument about vagueness which we often encounter : â€Å"There is really no difference between X and Y because it is often quite unclear whether something is X or Y. † Example : â€Å"There is really no such thing as objective truth or falsity. Whether something is true or false is often hard to say. † This is a bad argument because even though a distinction might have borderline cases, it does not follow that the distinction is not real. For example, it might sometimes be unclear whether a room is dark or bright. But (a) there is still a real distinction between dark and bright rooms, and (b) there can be clear cases where we have one but not the other. Vagueness should be avoided when we want to speak precisely, as vagueness decreases the informational content of a claim. For example, compare these sentences : â€Å"He is quite old, actually exactly eighty years old. † â€Å"He is quite old, actually about eighty years old. † â€Å"He is quite old. † Many students often like to ask questions such as : â€Å"Is there going to be a lot of homework for this course? † â€Å"Is the final exam going to be difficult? â€Å" But of course words like â€Å"difficult† and â€Å"a lot† are vague. Vague terms can make a claim vague and impossible to confirm or disprove. Horoscope predictions for example : â€Å"Be prepared for a change of direction this week as something crops up. † – SCMP Sunday Post Magazine. â€Å"This piece of news is going to affect the market somewhat. † But of course one might try to use vagueness to one’s advantage in order to be non-committal or imprecise. â€Å"As a minister I agree that to some extent I am responsible. † â€Å"The government will deal with this problem in an appropriate manner when the right time comes. †  § M08. Incomplete Meaning A term has an  incomplete meaning  if the property or relation it expresses depends on some further parameter to be specified by the context, either explicitly or implicitly. This includes terms such as â€Å"useful†, â€Å"important†, â€Å"similar† and â€Å"better†. Practically all objects are useful and important only in some respects but not others. For example, is love more important than money? Well, it depends. If you are starving to death, then money is more important. But if you are trying to determine which of the two contributes more to a happy and fulfilling life, then the answer might be different. So just saying that something is useful or important is empty unless it is made clear in what way it is so. This is also necessary if we want to evaluate whether what is said is true or not. â€Å"The education director shall visit Scotland to study their educational system because it is similar to the one in Hong Kong. † â€Å"Will this year’s final exam be similar to the one last year? † â€Å"It is better to be beautiful than to be good. But . . . it is better to be good than to be ugly. † –   Oscar Wilde (1854 – 1900) â€Å"Art never improves, but . . . the material of art is never quite the same. † –   T. S. Eliot (1888 – 1965) How to cite Vague and Ambiguous, Papers

Darwinian Theory Of Evolution Essay Example For Students

Darwinian Theory Of Evolution Essay TABLE OF CONTENTS PageINTRODUCTION .. 2DARWINIAN THEORY OF EVOLUTION 4THE THEORY OF BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION: CONTRIBUTING ELEMENTS .. 7WALLACES CONTRIBUTIONS .. 13HARDY-WEINBERG PRINCIPLE . 15COMPARISON: LAMARCK vs. DARWIN 16DARWINS INFLUENCES 20METHODS OF SCIENTIFIC DEDUCTION 23LIMITS TO DARWINS THEORY 25MORPHOLOGICAL ; BIOLOGICAL CONCEPTS .. 27BIO-EVOLUTION: POPULATION vs. INDIVIDUALS . 29MECHANISMS FOR GENETIC VARIATION .. 31GENETIC VARIATION AND SPECIATION .. 35DARWINS FINCHES 37SPECIATION vs. CONVERGENT EVOLUTION .. 39CONCEPT OF ADAPTATION . 41PUNCTUATED EQUILIBRIUM 43VALUE/LIMITATIONS: THE THEORY OF BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION . 45ALTERNATE EXPLANATIONS OF BEING 47CONCLUSIONS .. 48INTRODUCTIONTheories explaining biological evolution have been bandiedabout since the ancient Greeks, but it was not until theEnlightment of the 18th century that widespread acceptance anddevelopment of this theory emerged. In the mid 19th centuryenglish naturalist Charles Darwin who has been called th efather of evolution conceived of the most comprehensivefindings about organic evolution ever1. Today many of hisprinciples still entail modern interpretation of evolution. Ive assessed and interpreted the basis of Darwins theorieson evolution, incorporating a number of other factors concerningevolutionary theory in the process. Criticism of Darwinsconclusions abounds somewhat more than has been paid tribute to,however Darwins findings marked a revolution of thought andsocial upheaval unprecedented in Western consciousnesschallenging not only the scientific community, but the prominentreligious institution as well. Another revolution in science ofa lesser nature was also spawned by Darwin, namely the remarkablesimplicity with which his major work The Origin of the Specieswas written straightforward English, anyone capable of alogical argument could follow it also unprecedented in thescientific community (compare this to Isaac Newtons horriblycomplex work taking the scientific community years tointerpret2). Evolutionary and revolutionary in more than one sense ofeach word. Every theory mentioned in the following reading, infact falls back to Darwinism. DARWINIAN THEORY OF BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTIONModern conception of species and the idea of organicevolution had been part of Western consciousness since the mid-17th century (a la John Ray)3, but wide-range acceptance of thisidea, beyond the bounds of the scientific community, did notarise until Darwin published his findings in 19584. Darwin firstdeveloped his theory of biological evolution in 1938, followinghis five-year circumglobal voyage in the southern tropics (as anaturalist) on the H.M.S. Beagle, and perusal of one ThomasMalthus An Essay on the Principle of Population which proposedthat environmental factors, such as famine and disease limitedhuman population growth5. This had direct bearing on Darwinstheory of natural selection, furnishing him with an enhancedconceptualization of the survival of the fittest thecompetition among individuals of the same species for limitedresources the missing piece to his puzzle6. For fear ofcontradicting his fathers beliefs, Darwin did not publis h hisfindings until he was virtually forced after Alfred Wallace senthim a short paper almost identical to his own extensive works onthe theory of evolution. The two men presented a joint paper tothe Linnaean Society in 1958 Darwin published a much largerwork (a mere abstract of my material) Origin of the Species ayear later, a source of undue controversy and opposition (frompious Christians)7, but remarkable development for evolutionarytheory. Their findings basically stated that populations oforganisms and individuals of a species were varied: someindividuals were more capable of obtaining mates, food and othermeans of sustenance, consequently producing more offspring thanless capable individuals. Their offspring would retain some ofthese characteristics, hence a disproportionate representation ofsuccessive individuals in future generations. Therefore futuregenerations would tend have those characteristics of moreaccommodating individuals8. This is the basis of Darwins theoryof natural selection: those individuals incapable of adapting tochange are eliminated in future generations, selected against. Darwin observed that animals tended to produce more offspringthan were necessary to replace themselves, leading to the logicalconclusion that eventually the earth would no longer be able tosupport an expanding population. As a result of increasingpopulation however, war, famine and pestilence also increaseproportionately, generally maintaining comparatively stablepopulation9. Twelve years later, Darwin published a two-volume workentitled The Descent of Man, applying his basic theory to likecomparison between the evolutionary nature of man and animals andhow this related to socio-political development man and hisperception of life. It is through the blind and aimlessprogress of natural selection that man has advance to his presentlevel in love, memory, attention, curiosity, imitation, reason,etc. as well as progress in knowledge morals and religion10. Here is where originated the classic idea of the evolution of manfrom ape, specifically where he contended that Africa was thecradle of civilization. This work also met with opposition butbecause of the impact of his revolutionary initial work thisopposition was comparatively muted11. A summary of the critical issues of Darwins theory might beabridged into six concise point as follows:1Variation among individuals of a species does not indicatedeficient copies of an ideal prototype as suggested by theplatonic notion of Eidos. The reverse is true: variationis integral to the evolutionary process. 2The fundamental struggle in nature occurs within singlespecies population to obtain food, interbreed, and resistpredation. The struggle between different species (ie. foxvs. hare) is less consequential. 3The only variations pertinent to evolution are those whichare inherited. 4Evolution is an ongoing process which must span many moonsto become detectably apparent. 5Complexity of a species may not necessarily increase withthe evolutionary process it may not change at all, evendecrease. 6Predator and prey have no underlying purpose for maintenanceof any type of balance natural selection is opportunisticand irregular12. THE THEORY OF BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION: CONTRIBUTING ELEMENTSThe scientific range of biological evolution is remarkablyvast and can be used to explain numerous observations within thefield of biology. Generally, observation of any physical,behaviourial, or chemical change (adaptation) over time owingdirectly to considerable diversity of organisms can be attributedto biological evolution of species. It might also explain thelocation (distribution) of species throughout the planet. Naturalists can hypothesize that if organisms are evolvingthrough time, then current species will differ considerably fromtheir extinct ancestors. The theory of biological evolutionbrought about the idea for a record of the progressive changes anearly, extinct species underwent. Through use of this fossilrecord paleontologists are able to classify species according totheir similarity to ancestral predecessors, and thereby determinewhich species might be related to one another. Determination ofthe age of each fossil will concurrently indicate the rate ofevolution, as well as precisely which ancestors preceded oneanother and consequently which characteristics are retained orselected against. Generally this holds true: probable ancestorsdo occur earlier in the fossil record, prokaryotes precedeeukaryotes in the fossil record. There are however, significantmissing links throughout the fossil record resulting fromspecies that were, perhaps, never fossilized nevertheless it isrelatively c ompatible with the theory of evolution13. It can be postulated that organisms evolving from the sameancestor will tend to have similar structural characteristics. New species will have modified versions of preexisting structuresas per their respective habitats (environmental situations). Certainly these varying species will demonstrate cleardifferentiation in important structural functions, however anunderlying similarity will be noted in all. In this case thesimilarity is said to be homologous, that is, structure origin isidentical for all descended species, but very different inappearance. This can be exemplified in the pectoral appendagesof terrestrial vertebrates: Initial impression would be that ofdisparate structure, however in all such vertebrates fourdistinct structural regions have been defined: the regionnearest the body (humerus connecting to the pectoral girdle, themiddle region (two bones, radius and ulna are present), a thirdregion the hand of several bones (carpal and metacarpal,and region of digits or fingers. Current species might alsoexhibit similar organ functions, but are not descended from thesame ancestor and therefore different in structure. Suchorganisms are said to be analogous and can be exemplified intetrapods, many containing similar mus cles but not necessarilyoriginating from the same ancestor. These two anatomicallikenesses cannot be explained without considerable understandingof the theory of organic evolution14. The embryology, or early development of species evolved fromthe same ancestor would also be expected to be congruent. Related species all share embryonic features. This has helped indetermining reasons why development takes place indirectly,structures appearing in embryonic stage serve no purpose, and whythey are absent in adults. All vertebrates develop a notchord,gill slits (greatly modified during the embryonic cycle) and atail during early embryology, subsequently passing through stagesin which they resemble larval amphioxus, then larval fishes. The notchord will only be retained as discs, while only the earcanal will remain of the gills in adults. Toothless Baleenwhales will temporarily develop teeth and hair during earlyembryology leading to the conclusion that their ancestors hadthese anatomical intricacies. A similar pattern, exists inalmost all animal organisms during the embryonic stage fornumerous formations of common organs including the lungs andliver. Yet there is a virtually unlimited variation ofanatomical properties among adult organisms. This variation canonly be attributed to evolutionary theory15. Biological evolution theory insists that in the case of acommon ancestor, all species should be similar on a molecularlevel. Despite the tremendous diversity in structure, behaviourand physiology of organisms, there is among them a considerableamount of molecular consistency. Many statements have alreadybeen made to ascertain this: All cells are comprised of the sameelemental organic compounds, namely proteins, lipid andcarbohydrates. All organic reactions involve the action ofenzymes. Proteins are synthesized in all cells from 20 knownamino acids. In all cells, carbohydrate molecules arederivatives of six-carbon sugars (and their polymers). Glycolysis is used by all cells to obtain energy through thebreakdown of compounds. Metabolism for all cells as well asdetermination of definitude of proteins through intermediatecompounds is governed by DNA. The structure for all vitallipids, proteins, some important co-enzymes and specializedmolecules such as DNA, RNA and ATP are common to all organisms. All organisms are anatomically constructed through function ofthe genetic code. All of these biochemical similarities can bepredicted by the theory of biological evolution but, of coursesome molecular differentiation can occur. What might appear asminor differentiation (perhaps the occurrence-frequency of asingle enzyme) might throw species into entirely different ordersof mammals (ie. cite the chimpanzee and horse, thedifferentiation resulting from the presence of an extra 11cytochrome c respiratory enzymes). Experts have thereforetheorized that all life evolve from a single organism, thechanges having occurred in each lineage, derived in concert froma common ancestor16. Breeders had long known the value of protective resemblancelong before Darwin or any other biological evolution theoristsmade their mark. Nevertheless, evolutionary theory can predictand explain the process by which offspring of two somewhatdifferent parents of the same species will inherit the traits ofboth or rather how to insure that the offspring retains thebeneficial traits by merging two of the same species with likephysical characteristics. It was the work of Mendel thatactually led to more educated explanations for the value inprotective resemblance17. The Hardy-Weinburg theory specifically,employs Mendels theory to a degree to predict the frequency ofoccurrence of dominantly or recessively expressing offspring. Population genetics is almost sufficient in explaining the basisfor protective resemblance. Here biological evolutionary theorymight obtain its first application to genetic engineering18. Finally, one could suggest that species residing in aspecific area might be placed into two ancestral groups: thosespecies with origins outside of the area and those speciesevolving from ancestors already present in the area. Because theevolutionary process is so slow, spanning over considerablelengths of time, it can be predicted that similar species wouldbe found within comparatively short distances of each other, dueto the difficulty for most organisms to disperse across an ocean. These patterns of dispersion are rather complex, but it isgenerally maintained by biologists that closely related speciesoccur in the same indefinite region. Species may also beisolated by geographic dispersion: they might colonize anisland, and over the course of time evolve differently from theirrelatives on the mainland. Madagascar is one such example infact approximately 90 percent of the birds living there areendemic to that region. Thus as predicted, it follows thatspeciation is concurrent with the theory of biologicalevolution19. WALLACES CONTRIBUTIONSThere is rarely a sentence written regarding Wallace thatdoes not contain some allusion to Darwin. Indeed, perhaps thesingle most significant feat he preformed was to compel Darwin toenter the public scene20. Wallace, another English naturalist haddone extensive work in South America and southeast Asia(particularly the Amazon and the Malay Archipelago) and, likeDarwin, he had not conceived of the mechanism of evolution untilhe read (recalled, actually) the work of Thomas Malthus thenotion that in every generation the inferior would be killed offand the superior would remain that is the fittest wouldsurvive. When the environment changed therefore, he determinedthat all the changes necessary for the adaptation of the species would be brought about; and as the great changes are alwaysslow there would be ample time for the change to be effected bythe survival of the best fitted in every generation. He sawthat his theory supplanted the views of Lamarck and the Vist agesand annulled every important difficulty with these theories21. Two days later he sent Darwin (leading naturalist of thetime) a four-thousand word outline of his ideas entitled On theLaw Which has Regulated the Introduction. This was more thanmerely cause for Darwins distress, for his work was so similarto Darwins own that in some cases it parallelled Darwins ownphrasing, drawing on many of the same examples Darwin hit upon. Darwin was in despair over this, years of his own work seemed togo down the tube but he felt he must publish Wallaces work. Darwin was persuaded by friends to include extracts of his ownfindings when he submitted Wallaces work On the Law Which HasRegulated the Introduction of New Species to the Linnaean Societyin 1858, feeling doubly horrible because he felt this would betaking advantage of Wallaces position. Wallace never once gavethe slightest impression of resentment or disagreement, even tothe point of publishing a work of his own entitled Darwinism. This itself was his single greatest contribution to the field:encouraging Darwin to publish his extensive research on theissues theyd both developed22. He later published Contributions to the Theory of NaturalSelection, comprising the fundamental explanation andunderstanding of the theory of evolution through naturalselection. He also greatly developed the notion of naturalbarriers which served as isolation mechanisms, keeping apart notonly species but also whole families of animals he drew up aline (Wallaces line) where the fauna and flora of southeastAsia were very distinct from those of Australasia23. HARDY-WEINBERG PRINCIPLEPrior to full recognition of Mendels work in the early1900s, development of quantitative models describing the changesof gene frequencies in population were not realized. Followingthis rediscovery of Mendel, four scientists independently,almost simultaneously contrived the Hardy-Weinberg principal(named after two of the four scientists) which initiated thescience of population genetics: exploration of the statisticalrepercussions of the principle of inheritance as devised byMendel. Read concisely the Hardy-Weinberg principle might bestated as follows:Alternate paradigms of genes in ample populations will not bemodified proportionately as per successive generation, unlessstimulated by mutation, selection, emigration, or immigration ofindividuals. The relative proportion of genotypes in thepopulation will also be maintained after one generation, shouldthese conditions be negated or mating is random24. Through application of the Hardy-Weinberg principle theprecise conditions under which change does not occur in thefrequencies of alleles at a locus in a given population (group ofindividuals able to interbreed and produce fertile offspring) canbe formulated: the alleles of a locus will be at equilibrium. Aspecies may occur in congruous correspondence with its populationcounterpart, or may consist of several diverse populations,physically isolated from one another25. In accordance with Mendelian principle, given twoheterozygous alleles A and B, probability of the offspringretaining prominent traits of either parent (AA or BB) is 25percent, probability of retaining half the traits of each parent(AB) is 50 percent. Thus allele frequencies in the offspringparallel those of the parents. Likewise, given one parent AB andanother AA, allele frequencies would be 75 percent A and 25percent B, while genotype frequencies would be 50 percent AA and50 percent AB the gametes generated by these offspring wouldalso maintain the same ratio their parents initiated (given, ofcourse a maximum of two alleles at each locus). In true-to-life application however, where numerous allelesmay occur at any given locus numerous possible combinations ofgene frequencies are generated. Assuming a population of 100individuals = 1, 30 at genotype AA, 70 at genotype BB. Applyingthe proportionate theory, only 30% (0.30) of the gametes producedwill retain the A allele, while 70% (0.70) the B allele. Assuming there is no preference for AA or BB individuals formates, the probability of the (30% of total population) AA malesmating with AA females is but 9% (0.3 x 0.3 = 0.09). Likewisethe probability of an BB to BB match is 49%, the remainderbetween (30%) AA and (70%) BB individuals, totalling a 21%frequency. Frequency of alleles in a population in are commonlydenoted p and q respectively, while the AB genotype is denoted2pq. Using the relevant equation p + pq + q = 1, the sameproportions would be obtained. It can therefore be noted thatthe frequencies of the alleles in the population are unchanged. If one were to apply this equation to the next generation,similarly the genotype frequencies will remain unchanged per eachsuccessive generation. Generally speaking, the Hardy-Weinbergprinciple will not favour one genotype over another producingfrequencies expected through application of this law. Breaking Down The Metamorphosis EssayThe differentiated, but closely related species are now termedspecies pair, or species group. Eventually differentiation willprogress far enough for them to be defined as different species. While divergence is a continuing process, it does notnecessarily occur at a constant rate fluctuating betweenextremely rapid rates and very slow rates of evolution. Twostandard methods have been postulated for the occurrence ofgeographic speciation: i) Individuals from a species mightpopulate a new, isolated region of a give area (such as anisland). Their offspring would evolve geographically isolatedfrom the original species. Eventually, geographical isolationfrom the population on the mainland would evolved distinguishablecharacteristics. ii) Individuals might, alternately begeographically isolated as physical barriers arise or the rangeof the species or individuals of a population diminishes52. However, neither of these forms of speciation through geographicisolation and consequent individual genetic variation have beenobserved or studied direct because of the time span and generaldifficulty of unearthing desired fossils. Evidence for this formof speciation is therefore indirect and based on postulatedtheory53. DARWINS FINCHESThe finches of the Galapagos islands provided Darwin withan important lead towards his development of his theory ofevolution. They were (are) a perfect example of how isolatedpopulations could evolve. Here Darwin recognized that lifebranched out from a common prototype in what is now calledadaptive radiation. There were no indigenous finches to theislands when they arrived some adapted to tree-living, othersto cactus habitat, others to the ground. The differentiation wascomparatively small, and yet there evolved fourteen species ofbird classified under six separate genera, each visibly differentonly in the characteristics of its beak54. Joint selection pressure equations have been used tocalculate the change in gene frequency and consequent rate ofmutation resulting from action the of natural selection. Populations of Galapagos finches arrived at their islands fromSouth America and were provided with varying methods ofobtainment of sustenance. Only those individuals that evolvedcharacteristics allowing them to more easily obtain food fromvarying sources were not selected against. Populations wereisolated on certain islands and had to adapt to different foodsources. The result was an adaptation to food (seeds) fromtrees, ground or cactus-dominated ares. However, the migratorynature of these finches prompted them to emigrate to alternateislands, therefore interbreeding with otherwise isolatedpopulations of finches. The result has been a variation onsingle specific characteristics which retain certain propertiesdue to the singular islands they predominantly occupied. Whenthe population of immigrants was high enough, the gene pools ofdiverse populations of finches presently occupying the island wasmodified enough such that offspring would inherit some of thetraits of otherwise isolated finch populations55. Nevertheless,these finches developed characteristics endemic to theirparticular habitat, and because finches tend to remain in groupsrather than individual families, these particular characteristicsbecame dominant enough to evolve morphologically and later evenbiologically different characteristics. These discrepanciescould only lead to greater genetic variation down the line. Eventually immigrants from the mainland and even other Galapagosislands were completely incompatible with specific finchpopulations endemic to their respective islands56. Generally,selection pressure decreased as mutations resulting fromsystematic processes of genetic variation could no longer occur. This produced a significantly less versatile gene pool, however,via genetic drift from individuals of alternate populations whohad, at some point evolved from ancestors the population inquestion. Thus the gene pool could be modified without reallyaffecting the gene frequencies57 joint pressures were thereforestabilized, along with the newly developed population. SPECIATION vs. CONVERGENT EVOLUTIONSpeciation is substantially more relevant to the evolutionof species than convergent evolution. Through natural selectionsimilar characteristics and ways of life may be evolved bydiverse species inhabiting the same region, in what is calledconvergent evolution reflecting the similar selective pressureof similar environments. While separate populations of the samespecies occupying similar habitats may also evidence similarphysical characteristics due primarily to the environmentrather than their species origin it should noted that theyprogressed form the same ancestor. A defining principle for thealternate natures of speciation and convergent evolution putsimply: speciation results form a common ancestor, convergentevolution results from any number of ancestors58. Morphologically similar populations resulting from the sameancestor may be compatible and able to produce viable offspring(if in some occasions not fertile offspring). Morphologicallysimilar species resulting form different ancestors are nevercompatible with one another even if they are virtualmorphological twins. In fact, morphologically disparatepopulations of the same species may be compatible with oneanother whereas those disparate through convergent evolutionwould be more than merely incompatible, they may be predator andprey. Convergent evolution may only account for single specificphysical characteristics of very disparate, unrelated species such as the development of flipper-like appendages for the seaturtle (reptile), penguin (bird) and walrus (mammal)59. CONCEPT OF ADAPTATIONIf individuals were unable to adapt to changes in theenvironment they would be extinct in short order. Adaptabilityis often based on nuclear inheritance down the generations. Should an organism develop a resistance to certain environmentalconditions, this characteristic may be passed down through thegene pool, and then through natural selection be dominant for allorganisms of a given population. Bacteria are able to accomplish this feat at a remarkablyfast rate. Most, if not all forms of bacteria are compatiblewith one another, that is able to exchange genetic information. The speed at which bacteria reproduces is immeasurably fasterthan that of more complex, eukaryote organisms. Bacteria have amuch shorter lifespan as well but because they can develop veryquickly into large colonies given ideal conditions, it is easierto understand bacteria in clusters. Should a single bacterialorganism develop a trait that slightly aids its resistance todestructive environmental conditions, it can pass its modifiedgenetic structure on to half of a colony in a matter of hours. In the meantime the colony is quickly expanding, fully adapted tothe environment soon however, it has developed more than it canbe accommodated. The population will drop quickly in the face ofinadaptability. But that (previosly mentioned) exteriorbacterial organism with the modified trait releases informationyielding new growth, allowing the colony to expand further. Itis generally accepted that bacterial colonies will achieve amaximum capability however, through adaptation the bacterialpopulation will quickly excel once again60. Antibiotics are nowsent to destroy the bacteria. Soon they will be obliterated and now all that remains of the colony are a few choice bacterialorganisms. However, an otherwise isolated bacteria enters thesystem to exchange genetic information with the much smallerbacterial colony, conditions are favourable, the bacteriaexpands again. Antibiotics are sent again to destroy this colony but the exterior bacteria, originating in another organism andhaving deve loped a resistance to this type of antibody hasprovided much of the colony with the means for resistance tothese antibodies as well. Once again the bacterial culture hasexpanded having resisted malignant exterior interlopers61. Thisis how bacteria develops, constantly exchanging nuclearinformation, constantly able to adapt to innumerable harmfulsources. As bacteria are exposed to more destructive forces, themore they decelop resistace to, as surely many of the billions ofbacteria could develop an invulnerability to any threateningexterior sources given ideal environmental conditions. PUNCTUATED EQUILIBRIUMRecently the concept of punctuated equilibrium, as proposedby American paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould has be the subjectof much controversy in the scientific world. Gould advanced theidea that evolutionary changes take place in sudden bursts, andare not modified for long periods time when they are reasonablyadapted to altered environment62. This almost directly contradicts the older, establishedDarwinian notions that species evolve through phyleticgradualism, that evolution occurs at a fairly constant rate. Itis not suggested by adherents of the punctuated equilibrium modelthat pivotal fluctuations in morphology occur spontaneously or inonly a few generations changes are established in populations they argue instead that the changes may occur in but 100 to 1000generations. It is difficult to determine which model could moreadequately describe what transpires over the course of speciationand evolution due to gaps in fossil-record, 50 to 100 thousandyears of strata often covering deposits bearing fossils. Geneticmake-up need not change much for rapid, discernable morphologicalalterations to detected63. Impartial analysts on the two theories conclude that theyare both synonymous with evolutionary theory. Their primarydifferences entail their emphasis on the importance of speciationin long-term evolutionary patterns in lineage. While phyleticgradualism emphases the significance of changes in a singlelineage and the revision of species through slight deviation,punctuated equilibrium emphases the significance of alterationoccurring during speciation, maintaining that local (usuallysmall) populations adapt rapidly to local circumstance inproduction of diverse species some of which acquire the meansfor supplantation of their ancestors and rampant settlement inmany important adaptive breakthroughs64. One must consider thatDarwin was not aided by Mendelian theory. Under suchcircumstances Darwin would have surely produced an entirelydifferent theory for the inheritance of beneficial traits. Consider that mutations can presumably occur spontaneously, giventhe properly modified parent. It can therefore be stated thatpunctuated equilibrium is probably a more likely explanation asit does take into account modern cell, and genetic theory. Phyletic gradualism, while certainly extremely logical is atheory which simply cannot encompass those circumstance in whichsignificant change is recorded over comparatively short periodsof time. Both are complementary to be sure, but perhaps one ofthe two distorts this complementary nature formulating inaccurateassumption. VALUE/LIMITATIONS: THE THEORY BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTIONWhether or not the theory of evolution is useful depends onwhether or one values progress above development of personalnotions of existence. Certainly under the blanket of asuperficial American Dream one would be expected to subscribe toideals that society, that the state erects. Of course, theseideals focus on betterment of society as a whole which nowunfortunately, means power to the state. Everybody is thuscaught up in progress, supposedly to improve the quality oflife, and have been somewhat enslaved by the notion of work. Work has become something of an idol, nothing can be obtainedwithout work for the state. Whether one agrees with thethoughtless actions of the elite or not, people are oppressed byconforming to ideals that insist upon human suffering. Someirresponsible, early religious institutions did just that,erecting a symbol of the peoples suffering and forcing them tobow before it. Development of aeronautic, or even cancerresearch contributes primarily to this ideal of progress. Development of such theories as biological evolution, contributenothing toward progress. It instills in the people newprinciples, to dream and develop an understanding of themselvesand that which surrounds them ones, freeing their will from thatshuffling mass, stumbling as they are herded towards that whichwill reap for them suffering and pain. The state provides thissoulless mass with small pretty trinkets along the way, wheedlingand cajoling them with media images of how they should lead theirlives the people respond with regrets. Modern theory of biological evolution is actually sadlylacking in explanation for exactly how characteristics are passeddown to future generations. It is understood how nitrogen basesinteract to form a genetic code for an organism but how themodification that the organism develops, occurs is unknown. Somehow the organism mutates to adapt to environmentalconditions, and then presumably the offspring of this organismwill retain these adaptations65. Of course, biological evolutioncannot also explain precisely how first organisms developed:Generally, the theory accounts for energy and chemicalinteractions at a level consistent enough to establish a constantflow of said interactions but even here it falls short. Andwhat of phyletic gradualism? It is completely unable to explainthe more sudden mutations that occurfor obvious reasons itcannot explain this (Darwin had no knowledge of genetics), buteven punctuated gradualism doesnt balance this problem. Imsure there are numerous other problems which can be addressed butthese can be dealt with where opinion can be more educated. ALTERNATE EXPLANATIONS OF BEINGMan it would appear, has always sought meaning for hisexistence. Development of many theories of existence have beenconceived and passed down through the ages. Institutionsconferring single metaphysical and elemental viewpoints have beenestablished, some of which have been particularly irresponsibleand oppressive towards the people they were supposed toenlighten. Most religious institutions have been used aspolitical tools for means of manipulation of the masses, goingback to early Roman days when empower Augustus absorbedChristianity into the Roman worship of the sun, Sol Invectus, asa means of subjugating the commoners to Roman doctrine. Generally religious institutions have exploited the people andhave been used as excuses for torture, war, mass exterminationsand general persecution and oppression of the people it pretendsto serve, telling the people they must suffer to reach ultimatetranscendent fulfilment. Unfortunately this oppression continuesin todays modern even Western world. There have actuallybeen almost innumerable explanations for the physical presence ofman these explanations merely been suppressed by the prevailingreligious institutions for fear that they will be deprivedabsolute power over the peopletheyre right. CONCLUSIONSWithout Darwin it can be concluded, reasonableinterpretation of biological evolution simply would not be. Natural selection, the process determining the ultimate survivalof a new organism, remains the major contributing factor to eventhe most modern evolutionary theory.The evolutionary processspans over the course of hundreds of thousands of generations,organisms evolving through systematic and dispersive mechanismsof speciation. Recently, heated debate surrounding whethercharacteristics are passed on in bursts of activity throughpunctuated equilibrium or at a constant rate through the moretraditional phyletic gradualism66. The release of Mendeliantheory into the scientific community filled the primary linkmissing in Darwins theory how biological characteristics werepassed on to future generations. Applications of genetic theoryto evolutionary theory however, are somewhat limited. It isdifficult to classify all species even through modern means ofpaleontology and application to the theory of organic evolution. BIBLIOGRAPHY1Brent, Peter. Charles Darwin, A Man of Enlarged Curiosity. Toronto: George J. McLeod Ltd., 1981. 2Dawkins, Richard. The Selfish Gene. New York: Paladin, 1978. 3Farrington, Benjamin. What Darwin Really Said. New York: Shoken Books, 1966. 4Gailbraith, Don.Biology: Principals, Patterns andProcesses. Toronto: John Wiley and Sons Canada Ltd. 1989, Un. 6: Evolution. 5Glass, Bently. Forerunners of Darwin 1745-1859. New York: Johns Hopkins Press, 1968. 6Gould, S.J. Ever Since Darwin. New York: Burnett Books, 1978. 7Grolier Encyclopedia, New. New York: Grolier Publishing, Inc., 1991. 8Haldane, J.B.S. The Causes of Evolution. London: Green and Co., 1982. 9Leakey, Richard E.. Mankind and Its Beginnings. New York:Anchor Press/Doubleday, 1978. 10Miller, Johnathan. Darwin For Beginners. New York: Pantheon Books, 1982. 11Moore, Johh A. Heredity and the Environment. New York: Oxford University Press, 1973. 12Patterson, Colin. Evolution. London: British Museum ofNatural History Press, 1976. 13Random House Encyclopedia, The. New York: Random House Inc., 1987, p. 406-25. 14Ridley, Mark. The Essential Darwin. London, Eng: Allen Unwin, 1987. 15Smith, J.M. On Evolution. London: Doubleday, 1972. 16Stansfield, William D.. Genetics 2/ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1983, p.266-287. 17Thomas, K.S.. H.M.S. Beagle, 1820-1870. Washington: Oxford University Press, 1975. ENDNOTES_______________________________1. Johnathan Miller, Darwin for Beginners,New York, Pantheon Books, 1982, p. 8. 2. Mark Ridley, The Essential Darwin, London Eng:Allen Unwin, 1987, p. 23. 3. J.M. Smith, On Evolution, London, Eng.:London/Doubleday, 1972, 48. 4. Peter Brent, Charles Darwin, A Man of EnlargedCuriosity, Toronto: George J. McLeod Ltd., 1981, p. 313. 5. Don Gailbraith, Biology, Principals, Patterns andProcesses, Toronto: John Wiley and Sons Canada Ltd. 1989, Un. 6: Evolution, p. 403. 6. opsit., p. 92. 7. opsit., p. 96. 8. J.B.S. Heldane, The Causes of Evolution, London:Green and Co., 1982, p. 237. 9. ibid., p. 444. 10. Benjamin Farrington, What Darwin Really Said,New York: Shocken Books, 1966, p. 52. 11. ibid., p. 61. 12. opsit., p. 405-06. 13. opsit., p. 383. 14. ibid., p. 390. 15. ibid., p. 388. 16. ibid., p. 381. 17. John A. Moore, Heredity and the Environment,New york: Pantheon Books, 1980, p. 141. 18. opsit., p. 417. 19. opsit., p. 385. 20. K.S. Thomas, H.M.S. Beagle, 1820-1870,Washington: Oxford University Press, p. 229. 21. opsit. p. 8022. opsit., p. 262. 23. ibid., p. 536. 24. opsit., p.417. 25. opsit., p. 183. 26. opsit., p. 419. 27. The Random House Encyclopedia, New York:Random House Inc., 1987, p. 432. 28. ibid., p. 437. 29. opsit., p. 348. 30. The New Grolier Electronic Encyclopedia,Grolier Electronic Publishing, Inc., 1991,MALTHUS. 31. opcit., p. 403. 32. ibid., p. 404. 33. opsit., MALTHUS. 34. opsit., p. 309. 35. opsit., p. 841. 36. Bently Glass, Forerunners of Darwin 1745-1859,New York: Johns Hopkins Press, 1968. 37. opsit., p. 351. 38. Richard E. Leakey, Mankind and Its Beginnings,New York: Anchor Press/Doubleday, p. 177. 39. ibid., p. 156. 40. opsit., p. 218. 41. opsit., p. 408. 42. opcit., p.431. 43. ibid., p. 432/44. opsit., p. 253. 45. ibid., p. 554. 46. William D. Stansfield, Genetics 2/ed,New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1983, p. 266. 47. ibid. p. 269. 48. opsit., p. 272. 49. ibid., p. 274. 50. ibid., p. 275. 51. opsit., p. 434. 52. ibid., p. 432. 53. ibid., p. 435. 54. opsit, p. 420. 55. opsit., p.374. 56. ibid. p. 421. 57. opsit., p. 299. 58. opsit., p. 160. 59. opsit., p. 412. 60. opsit. p. 138. 61. ibid. p. 95. 62. opsit., p. 441. 63. ibid., p. 441-264. ibid., p. 443. 65. opsit., p. 572. 66. opsit., p. 441.